Java

• String concatenation: +
  • Eg: System.out.println("Hell" + 0 + " world"); prints Hell0 world
• There is no const keyword, final can be used to declare constant 'variables'.
• Boolean type is boolean in Java, not bool.
• default in function signature: To mention that this definition is the default implementation of this function
  • Can be used inside an interface.
  • https://stackoverflow.com/questions/31578427/what-is-the-purpose-of-the-default-keyword-in-java
• volatile: used to indicate that a variable may be used by mutliple threads ??
• Type casting: Syntax is like in C
• javap name.class: tries to convert a class file back to java file ??

API:

• Streams: https://docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/11/docs/api/java.base/java/util/stream/Stream.html
• Regex patterns: https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html
• Optional values: https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/java/util/Optional.html

Pattern matching (switch-case)

switch(exp) {
  case One -> 1;
  case Two -> 2;
  default -> 3;
}

See:

• https://www.infoq.com/articles/pattern-matching-for-switch/
• https://docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/18/language/pattern-matching-switch-expressions-and-statements.html

Method references

https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/javaOO/methodreferences.html

Example in above link:

Arrays.sort(rosterAsArray,
    (a, b) -> Person.compareByAge(a, b)
);

can be achieved with

Arrays.sort(rosterAsArray, Person::compareByAge);

ie, kind of like the usual way of using functions in Haskell.

Interface

• Like module type in ocaml (or signature in sml)
• default methods: 'A default method is a public non-abstract instance method, that is, a non-static method with a body, declared in an interface type.'ʳ

Functional interface

• @FunctionalInterface
• An interface with exactly one abstract method
• Useful for functional programming style. How??

The value would take the role of the function that was left abstract.

Can think of functions more like values ??

• Eg: String concat(String s) vs Function<String, String> concat

See:

• https://herovired.com/learning-hub/blogs/functional-interface-in-java/
• https://www.freecodecamp.org/news/functional-programming-in-java/
• https://www.scaler.com/topics/functional-interface-in-java/

$ in identifiers

$ is allowed in identifiers, but it is meant to be used selectively by convention.

TL;DR: Better not use it.

From oracle website:

The $ character should be used only in mechanically generated source code or, rarely, to access pre-existing names on legacy systems.

See:

• https://docs.oracle.com/javase/specs/jls/se7/html/jls-3.html#jls-3.8
• https://stackoverflow.com/questions/14056918/when-should-i-use-the-dollar-symbol-in-a-variable-name

Generics

• ?: Used as an unknown/any type in generic functions
• <? super R>: A class which is a super class of R
  • This class would have lesser or equal amount of features as R
  • R <: ?
  • https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/generics/lowerBounded.html
• <? extends T>: A class which is derived from class T
  • This class would have more or equal amount of features as T
  • ? <: T
  • https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4343202/difference-between-super-t-and-extends-t-in-java
  • https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/generics/upperBounded.html

Function interfaces

https://docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/17/docs/api/java.base/java/util/function/Function.html

• apply: apply arg function to given args
• identity: make identity function

Composition

• andThen: goes from left to right
• compose: goes from right to left

These two are apparently the same, but with argument order reversed.

• https://stackoverflow.com/questions/43849066/java-8-functions-compose-and-andthen
• a.andThen(b) is same as b.compose(a)

I guess g.compose(f) is there to be more in line of what we mean when we say g ∘ f in theory. ie, first do f and then do g.

While writing in Java, often the andThen version is more convenient.

Record class

See:

• https://docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/17/language/records.html

Sealed classes and interfaces

Enforces a form of subtyping ??

See:

• https://docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/21/language/sealed-classes-and-interfaces.html

Wrapper classes for primitive types

There are 8 primitive data types in Java. Some of them:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_wrapper_class_in_Java

'double cannot be converted to float'

• Float numbers are by default double, not float
• Eg: 3.14 is Double

Double dD = 3.14;
dD.floatValue(); // is type Float

double dd = 3.14;:w
(float) dd; // is type Float ??

https://stackoverflow.com/questions/32837783/convert-double-to-float-in-java

A sub-set of built-in exceptions

• NoSuchElementException

https://programming.guide/java/list-of-java-exceptions.html

Find size of an object

• Use jol: A tool associated with openJDK
  • https://github.com/openjdk/jol
• Could also use java.lang.instrument package.
  • https://stackoverflow.com/questions/52353/how-to-determine-the-size-of-an-object-in-java

Packaging

• MANIFEST.MF file
  • https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/deployment/jar/manifestindex.html

Remarks

• Every (non-primitive) type in java is inhabited by null.
  • This means that void is actually like unit.
• Primitive types are unboxed. Can't be null.
• Java has no union types like in C. Java doesn't offer that level of fine grained control over memory allocation, apparently.
• There is no way to have type aliases. But can have derived class as a work-around.

Doubts:

• Can we make a general way to have type constructors?
• Reflection in java (often not recommended??)

Misc

• CFR: A decompiler for JVM
  • Class files can be converted to Java
  • Even for other languages that target JVM. Like Scala, Frege.
• Frege: A haskell-like language for JVM (development has stalled)
• There was a bug in the binary search implementation of java.util.Arrays
  • Because of overflow in int mid = (low + high)/2.
  • Change it to int mid = low + (high - low)/2 to avoid the overflow.
  • https://research.google/blog/extra-extra-read-all-about-it-nearly-all-binary-searches-and-mergesorts-are-broken/
  • https://thebittheories.com/the-curious-case-of-binary-search-the-famous-bug-that-remained-undetected-for-20-years-973e89fc212